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Open AccessOpen Access JUSTC Article 11 September 2024

The effects of low-velocity layer and basin topography in near-field ground motion amplification

  • 1.

    School of Earth and Space Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, China

  • 2.

    Mengcheng National Geophysical Observatory, University of Science and Technology of China, Mengcheng 233500, China

Cite this:
https://doi.org/10.52396/JUSTC-2023-0156
More Information
  • Author Bio:

    Zeyu Lu is a master’s student at University of Science and Technology of China. He received his bachelor’s degree in Geophysics from China University of Geosciences (Beijing) in 2022. His research mainly focuses on the earthquake dynamic rupture process and earthquake ground motion simulation

    Feng Hu is an Associate Professor at University of Science and Technology of China (USTC). He received his Ph.D. degree in Geophysics at USTC in 2014. His research mainly focuses on rupture dynamics, earthquake hazard simulations, and seismicity analysis

  • Corresponding author: Feng Hu, E-mail: hufeng07@ustc.edu.cn
  • Received Date: 14 November 2023
  • Accepted Date: 01 February 2024
    • Available Online: 11 September 2024
    Abstract

  • Abstract

    Near-field ground motion amplification at sedimentary basins is widely observed and crucial to the earthquake hazard assessment. However, the effect of basin topography coupling with the low-velocity layer (LVL) in the ground motion amplification is yet to be fully understood. By constructing 3D basin models with surrounding mountain terrains and performing ground motion simulations, we compare the ground motion characteristics with different basin LVL depths and LVL velocities. The velocity contrast between LVL and bedrock controls the amplification magnitude. The maximum amplification area in the model changes from the central part to the periphery part of the basin with the velocity contrast decreasing and can be greatly influenced by the distance between the source and the basin. Amplification also spreads along the mountain edge circling the basin. Our work sheds light on the distribution of amplification within sedimentary basins surrounded by mountains, revealing that the velocity contrast between the LVL and bedrock plays a pivotal role in controlling the magnitude of amplification.

    Graphical abstract

    By introducing a basin model that includes both low-velocity layer and topography in earthquake ground motion simulation, the characteristics of ground motion amplification can be acquired.

    Abstract

    Near-field ground motion amplification at sedimentary basins is widely observed and crucial to the earthquake hazard assessment. However, the effect of basin topography coupling with the low-velocity layer (LVL) in the ground motion amplification is yet to be fully understood. By constructing 3D basin models with surrounding mountain terrains and performing ground motion simulations, we compare the ground motion characteristics with different basin LVL depths and LVL velocities. The velocity contrast between LVL and bedrock controls the amplification magnitude. The maximum amplification area in the model changes from the central part to the periphery part of the basin with the velocity contrast decreasing and can be greatly influenced by the distance between the source and the basin. Amplification also spreads along the mountain edge circling the basin. Our work sheds light on the distribution of amplification within sedimentary basins surrounded by mountains, revealing that the velocity contrast between the LVL and bedrock plays a pivotal role in controlling the magnitude of amplification.

    • Public Summary

    • The effect of the low-velocity layer in contrast with the surrounding mountain topography of a sedimentary basin model is scrutinized by near-field ground motions.
    • Velocity contrast between bedrock and low-velocity layer plays a pivotal role in controlling the amplitude of the ground motion amplification.
    • Amplification caused by the topography mainly spreads along the mountain edge and may interact with the low-velocity layer to amplify ground motion.

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    • References(43)
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    Pitarka A, Irikura K, Iwata T, et al. Three-dimensional simulation of the near-fault ground motion for the 1995 Hyogo-Ken Nanbu (Kobe), Japan, earthquake. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 1998, 88 (2): 428–440. doi: 10.1785/BSSA0880020428
    [2]
    Yu Z, Liu Q, Xu J, et al. Simulation of dynamic rupture process and near-field strong ground motion for the Wenchuan earthquake. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 2022, 112 (6): 2828–2846. doi: 10.1785/0120220041
    [3]
    Graves R W. Preliminary analysis of long-period basin response in the Los Angeles region from the 1994 Northridge earthquake. Geophysical Research Letters, 1995, 22 (2): 101–104. doi: 10.1029/94GL02894
    [4]
    Xu W, Wu P, Li D, et al. Joint inversion of Rayleigh group and phase velocities for S-wave velocity structure of the 2021 Ms6.0 Luxian earthquake source area, China. Earthquake Science, 2023, 36 (5): 356–375. doi: 10.1016/j.eqs.2023.09.003
    [5]
    Zhao Y, Jiang G, Lei X, et al. The 2021 Ms 6.0 Luxian (China) earthquake: Blind reverse-fault rupture in deep sedimentary formations likely induced by pressure perturbation from hydraulic fracturing. Geophysical Research Letters, 2023, 50 (7): e2023GL103209. doi: 10.1029/2023GL103209
    [6]
    Bard P-Y, Bouchon M. The seismic response of sediment-filled valleys. Part 2. The case of incident P and SV waves. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 1980, 70 (5): 1921–1941. doi: 10.1785/BSSA0700051921
    [7]
    Dravinski M. Influence of interface depth upon strong ground motion. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 1982, 72 (2): 597–614. doi: 10.1785/BSSA0720020597
    [8]
    Dravinski M, Mossessian T K. Scattering of plane harmonic P, SV, and Rayleigh waves by dipping layers of arbitrary shape. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 1987, 77 (1): 212–235. doi: 10.1785/BSSA0770010212
    [9]
    Ayoubi P, Mohammadi K, Asimaki D. A systematic analysis of basin effects on surface ground motion. Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, 2021, 141: 106490. doi: 10.1016/j.soildyn.2020.106490
    [10]
    Kamal, Narayan J P. 3D basin-shape ratio effects on frequency content and spectral amplitudes of basin-generated surface waves and associated spatial ground motion amplification and differential ground motion. Journal of Seismology, 2015, 19 (2): 293–316. doi: 10.1007/s10950-014-9466-8
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    [12]
    Liu Z X, Huang Z E, Zhang Z, et al. Three-dimensional preconditioned FM-IBEM solution to broadband-frequency seismic wave scattering in a layered sedimentary basin. Engineering Analysis with Boundary Elements, 2021, 133: 1–18. doi: 10.1016/j.enganabound.2021.08.012
    [13]
    Liu Z X, Huang Z E, Meng S B. Three-dimensional IBEM solution to seismic wave scattering by a near-fault sedimentary basin. Engineering Analysis with Boundary Elements, 2022, 140: 220–242. doi: 10.1016/j.enganabound.2022.04.017
    [14]
    Wirth E A, Vidale J E, Frankel A D, et al. Source-dependent amplification of earthquake ground motions in deep sedimentary basins. Geophysical Research Letters, 2019, 46 (12): 6443–6450. doi: 10.1029/2019GL082474
    [15]
    Frankel A, Stephenson W, Carver D. Sedimentary basin effects in Seattle, Washington: Ground-motion observations and 3D simulations. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 2009, 99 (3): 1579–1611. doi: 10.1785/0120080203
    [16]
    Frankel A D, Carver D L, Williams R A. Nonlinear and linear site response and basin effects in Seattle for the M 6.8 Nisqually, Washington, earthquake. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 2002, 92 (6): 2090–2109. doi: 10.1785/0120010254
    [17]
    Jayalakshmi S, Dhanya J, Raghukanth S T G, et al. 3D seismic wave amplification in the Indo-Gangetic basin from spectral element simulations. Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, 2020, 129: 105923. doi: 10.1016/j.soildyn.2019.105923
    [18]
    Esmaeilzadeh A, Motazedian D. Sensitivity analysis for finite-difference seismic basin modeling: A case study for Kinburn basin, Ottawa, Canada. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 2019, 109 (6): 2305–2324. doi: 10.1785/0120190029
    [19]
    Fu C, Gao M, Chen K. A study on long-period response spectrum of ground motion affected by basin structure of Beijing. Acta Seismologica Sinica, 2012, 34 (03): 374–382. (in Chinese) doi: 10.3969/j.issn.0253-3782.2012.03.009
    [20]
    Lee S-J, Chen H-W, Huang B-S. Simulations of strong ground motion and 3D amplification effect in the Taipei basin by using a composite grid finite-difference method. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 2008, 98 (3): 1229–1242. doi: 10.1785/0120060098
    [21]
    Miksat J, Wen K-L, Sokolov V, et al. Simulating the Taipei basin response by numerical modeling of wave propagation. Bulletin of Earthquake Engineering, 2010, 8 (4): 847–858. doi: 10.1007/s10518-009-9171-0
    [22]
    Sokolov V, Wen K-L, Miksat J, et al. Analysis of Taipei basin response for earthquakes of various depths and locations using empirical data. Terrestrial, Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences: TAO, 2009, 20 (5): 687–702. doi: 10.3319/TAO.2008.10.15.01(T)
    [23]
    Boore D M. A note on the effect of simple topography on seismic SH waves. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 1972, 62 (1): 275–284. doi: 10.1785/BSSA0620010275
    [24]
    Bouchon M. Effect of topography on surface motion. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 1973, 63 (2): 615–632. doi: 10.1785/BSSA0630020615
    [25]
    Davis L L, West L R. Observed effects of topography on ground motion. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 1973, 63 (1): 283–298. doi: 10.1785/BSSA0630010283
    [26]
    Çelebi M. Topographical and geological amplifications determined from strong-motion and aftershock records of the 3 March 1985 Chile earthquake. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 1987, 77 (4): 1147–1167. doi: 10.1785/BSSA0770041147
    [27]
    Geli L, Bard P-Y, Jullien B. The effect of topography on earthquake ground motion: A review and new results. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 1988, 78 (1): 42–63. doi: 10.1785/BSSA0780010042
    [28]
    Bourdeau C, Havenith H B. Site effects modelling applied to the slope affected by the Suusamyr earthquake (Kyrgyzstan, 1992). Engineering Geology, 2008, 97 (3): 126–145. doi: 10.1016/j.enggeo.2007.12.009
    [29]
    Rizzitano S, Cascone E, Biondi G. Coupling of topographic and stratigraphic effects on seismic response of slopes through 2D linear and equivalent linear analyses. Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, 2014, 67: 66–84. doi: 10.1016/j.soildyn.2014.09.003
    [30]
    Luo Y, Fan X, Huang R, et al. Topographic and near-surface stratigraphic amplification of the seismic response of a mountain slope revealed by field monitoring and numerical simulations. Engineering Geology, 2020, 271: 105607. doi: 10.1016/j.enggeo.2020.105607
    [31]
    Huang D, Sun P, Jin F, et al. Topographic amplification of ground motions incorporating uncertainty in subsurface soils with extensive geological borehole data. Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, 2021, 141: 106441. doi: 10.1016/j.soildyn.2020.106441
    [32]
    Wang G, Du C Y, Huang D R, et al. Parametric models for 3D topographic amplification of ground motions considering subsurface soils. Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, 2018, 115: 41–54. doi: 10.1016/j.soildyn.2018.07.018
    [33]
    Hailemikael S, Lenti L, Martino S, et al. Ground-motion amplification at the Colle di Roio ridge, central Italy: a combined effect of stratigraphy and topography. Geophysical Journal International, 2016, 206 (1): 1–18. doi: 10.1093/gji/ggw120
    [34]
    Zhang W, Zhang Z, Chen X. Three-dimensional elastic wave numerical modelling in the presence of surface topography by a collocated-grid finite-difference method on curvilinear grids. Geophysical Journal International, 2012, 190 (1): 358–378. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-246X.2012.05472.x
    [35]
    Hixon R. On increasing the accuracy of MacCormack schemes for aeroacoustic applications. In: 3rd AIAA/CEAS Aeroacoustics Conference. Reston, USA: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1997 .
    [36]
    Chen X, Quan Y, Harris J M. Seismogram synthesis for radially layered media using the generalized reflection/transmission coefficients method; theory and applications to acoustic logging. Geophysics, 1996, 61 (4): 1150–1159. doi: 10.1190/1.1444035
    [37]
    Komatitsch D, Tromp J. Introduction to the spectral element method for three-dimensional seismic wave propagation. Geophysical Journal International, 1999, 139 (3): 806–822. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-246x.1999.00967.x
    [38]
    Brocher T M. Empirical relations between elastic wavespeeds and density in the Earth’s crust. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 2005, 95 (6): 2081–2092. doi: 10.1785/0120050077
    [39]
    Wirth E A, Chang S W, Frankel A. 2018 report on incorporating sedimentary basin response into the design of tall buildings in Seattle, Washington. Reston, USA: U.S. Geological Survey, 2018 : Open-File Report 2018-1149.
    [40]
    Withjack M O, Schlische R W, Olsen P E, et al. Rift-basin structure and its influence on sedimentary systems. In: Sedimentation in Continental Rifts. Claremore, USA: Society for Sedimentary Geology, 2002 : 57–81.
    [41]
    Graizer V. Low-velocity zone and topography as a source of site amplification effect on Tarzana hill, California. Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, 2009, 29 (2): 324–332. doi: 10.1016/j.soildyn.2008.03.005
    [42]
    García-Pérez T, Ferreira A M G, Yáñez G, et al. Effects of topography and basins on seismic wave amplification: the Northern Chile coastal cliff and intramountainous basins. Geophysical Journal International, 2021, 227 (2): 1143–1167. doi: 10.1093/gji/ggab259
    [43]
    Lee S-J, Chan Y-C, Komatitsch D, et al. Effects of realistic surface topography on seismic ground motion in the Yangminshan region of Taiwan based upon the spectral-element method and LiDAR DTM. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 2009, 99 (2A): 681–693. doi: 10.1785/0120080264
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    Figure  1.  Basin model geometry. Three-dimensional basin geometry for (a) fixed-depth basin model and (b) wedge-shaped basin model, where the subsurface concave regions are filled with low-velocity media. The cross-section of the central red lines in (a) and (c) are shown in figures (c) and (d). The geometric parameters of the basin are labeled in Figures 1(c) and 1(d), whose definitions are listed in Table 1. In the following ground surface images in this article, the geometric cross-section of the basin is depicted in the center of the images.

    Figure  2.  Z-component velocity snapshot at the ground surface of the fixed-depth baseline model.

    Figure  3.  (a) PGVz, (b) PGVh, and (c) amplification factor of the fixed-depth baseline model at the ground surface. In Figures (a), (b), and (c), the dashed circle shows the boundary of LVL and topography. The central section profile is drawn in the center of the plot with a solid black line. The dashed red line and green line in Figures (a) and (b) represent two lines of receivers.

    Figure  4.  2-D section of model geometry and corresponding 3-component velocity seismograms for (a) receiver line 1 and (b) receiver line 2 in Fig. 3a with the fixed-depth baseline model.

    Figure  5.  Amplification factor of fixed-depth basin model with LVL depths of (a) 1000 m, (b) 1500 m, and (c) 2000 m, and corresponding vertical PGV (d), (e), (f). The dashed circle shows the boundary of LVL and topography.

    Figure  6.  Amplification factor of fixed-depth basin model with LVL velocities of (a) 1500 m/s, (b) 2000 m/s, (c) 2500 m/s, and (d) 3000 m/s, with a velocity of 3000 m/s of the bedrock.

    Figure  7.  (a) PGVz for wadge-shaped LVL model. (b) z-component Amplification factor of the wedged-shaped LVL model. (c) PSA with a 5% damping ratio of the wedge-shaped model at receivers in Figure 7a. (d) PSA with a 5% damping ratio of 1500 m fixed-depth basin model at corresponding receivers.

    Figure  8.  Amplification factor with different source locations (Figures a, c, e) and corresponding z-component velocity snapshot at 4 s and 15 s after the wavefront reaching LVL (Figures b, d, f). The result is calculated using a fixed-depth basin model.

    [1]
    Pitarka A, Irikura K, Iwata T, et al. Three-dimensional simulation of the near-fault ground motion for the 1995 Hyogo-Ken Nanbu (Kobe), Japan, earthquake. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 1998, 88 (2): 428–440. doi: 10.1785/BSSA0880020428
    [2]
    Yu Z, Liu Q, Xu J, et al. Simulation of dynamic rupture process and near-field strong ground motion for the Wenchuan earthquake. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 2022, 112 (6): 2828–2846. doi: 10.1785/0120220041
    [3]
    Graves R W. Preliminary analysis of long-period basin response in the Los Angeles region from the 1994 Northridge earthquake. Geophysical Research Letters, 1995, 22 (2): 101–104. doi: 10.1029/94GL02894
    [4]
    Xu W, Wu P, Li D, et al. Joint inversion of Rayleigh group and phase velocities for S-wave velocity structure of the 2021 Ms6.0 Luxian earthquake source area, China. Earthquake Science, 2023, 36 (5): 356–375. doi: 10.1016/j.eqs.2023.09.003
    [5]
    Zhao Y, Jiang G, Lei X, et al. The 2021 Ms 6.0 Luxian (China) earthquake: Blind reverse-fault rupture in deep sedimentary formations likely induced by pressure perturbation from hydraulic fracturing. Geophysical Research Letters, 2023, 50 (7): e2023GL103209. doi: 10.1029/2023GL103209
    [6]
    Bard P-Y, Bouchon M. The seismic response of sediment-filled valleys. Part 2. The case of incident P and SV waves. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 1980, 70 (5): 1921–1941. doi: 10.1785/BSSA0700051921
    [7]
    Dravinski M. Influence of interface depth upon strong ground motion. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 1982, 72 (2): 597–614. doi: 10.1785/BSSA0720020597
    [8]
    Dravinski M, Mossessian T K. Scattering of plane harmonic P, SV, and Rayleigh waves by dipping layers of arbitrary shape. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 1987, 77 (1): 212–235. doi: 10.1785/BSSA0770010212
    [9]
    Ayoubi P, Mohammadi K, Asimaki D. A systematic analysis of basin effects on surface ground motion. Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, 2021, 141: 106490. doi: 10.1016/j.soildyn.2020.106490
    [10]
    Kamal, Narayan J P. 3D basin-shape ratio effects on frequency content and spectral amplitudes of basin-generated surface waves and associated spatial ground motion amplification and differential ground motion. Journal of Seismology, 2015, 19 (2): 293–316. doi: 10.1007/s10950-014-9466-8
    [11]
    Qin Y, Wang Y, Takenaka H, et al. Seismic ground motion amplification in a 3D sedimentary basin: the effect of the vertical velocity gradient. Journal of Geophysics and Engineering, 2012, 9 (6): 761–772. doi: 10.1088/1742-2132/9/6/761
    [12]
    Liu Z X, Huang Z E, Zhang Z, et al. Three-dimensional preconditioned FM-IBEM solution to broadband-frequency seismic wave scattering in a layered sedimentary basin. Engineering Analysis with Boundary Elements, 2021, 133: 1–18. doi: 10.1016/j.enganabound.2021.08.012
    [13]
    Liu Z X, Huang Z E, Meng S B. Three-dimensional IBEM solution to seismic wave scattering by a near-fault sedimentary basin. Engineering Analysis with Boundary Elements, 2022, 140: 220–242. doi: 10.1016/j.enganabound.2022.04.017
    [14]
    Wirth E A, Vidale J E, Frankel A D, et al. Source-dependent amplification of earthquake ground motions in deep sedimentary basins. Geophysical Research Letters, 2019, 46 (12): 6443–6450. doi: 10.1029/2019GL082474
    [15]
    Frankel A, Stephenson W, Carver D. Sedimentary basin effects in Seattle, Washington: Ground-motion observations and 3D simulations. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 2009, 99 (3): 1579–1611. doi: 10.1785/0120080203
    [16]
    Frankel A D, Carver D L, Williams R A. Nonlinear and linear site response and basin effects in Seattle for the M 6.8 Nisqually, Washington, earthquake. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 2002, 92 (6): 2090–2109. doi: 10.1785/0120010254
    [17]
    Jayalakshmi S, Dhanya J, Raghukanth S T G, et al. 3D seismic wave amplification in the Indo-Gangetic basin from spectral element simulations. Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, 2020, 129: 105923. doi: 10.1016/j.soildyn.2019.105923
    [18]
    Esmaeilzadeh A, Motazedian D. Sensitivity analysis for finite-difference seismic basin modeling: A case study for Kinburn basin, Ottawa, Canada. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 2019, 109 (6): 2305–2324. doi: 10.1785/0120190029
    [19]
    Fu C, Gao M, Chen K. A study on long-period response spectrum of ground motion affected by basin structure of Beijing. Acta Seismologica Sinica, 2012, 34 (03): 374–382. (in Chinese) doi: 10.3969/j.issn.0253-3782.2012.03.009
    [20]
    Lee S-J, Chen H-W, Huang B-S. Simulations of strong ground motion and 3D amplification effect in the Taipei basin by using a composite grid finite-difference method. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 2008, 98 (3): 1229–1242. doi: 10.1785/0120060098
    [21]
    Miksat J, Wen K-L, Sokolov V, et al. Simulating the Taipei basin response by numerical modeling of wave propagation. Bulletin of Earthquake Engineering, 2010, 8 (4): 847–858. doi: 10.1007/s10518-009-9171-0
    [22]
    Sokolov V, Wen K-L, Miksat J, et al. Analysis of Taipei basin response for earthquakes of various depths and locations using empirical data. Terrestrial, Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences: TAO, 2009, 20 (5): 687–702. doi: 10.3319/TAO.2008.10.15.01(T)
    [23]
    Boore D M. A note on the effect of simple topography on seismic SH waves. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 1972, 62 (1): 275–284. doi: 10.1785/BSSA0620010275
    [24]
    Bouchon M. Effect of topography on surface motion. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 1973, 63 (2): 615–632. doi: 10.1785/BSSA0630020615
    [25]
    Davis L L, West L R. Observed effects of topography on ground motion. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 1973, 63 (1): 283–298. doi: 10.1785/BSSA0630010283
    [26]
    Çelebi M. Topographical and geological amplifications determined from strong-motion and aftershock records of the 3 March 1985 Chile earthquake. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 1987, 77 (4): 1147–1167. doi: 10.1785/BSSA0770041147
    [27]
    Geli L, Bard P-Y, Jullien B. The effect of topography on earthquake ground motion: A review and new results. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 1988, 78 (1): 42–63. doi: 10.1785/BSSA0780010042
    [28]
    Bourdeau C, Havenith H B. Site effects modelling applied to the slope affected by the Suusamyr earthquake (Kyrgyzstan, 1992). Engineering Geology, 2008, 97 (3): 126–145. doi: 10.1016/j.enggeo.2007.12.009
    [29]
    Rizzitano S, Cascone E, Biondi G. Coupling of topographic and stratigraphic effects on seismic response of slopes through 2D linear and equivalent linear analyses. Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, 2014, 67: 66–84. doi: 10.1016/j.soildyn.2014.09.003
    [30]
    Luo Y, Fan X, Huang R, et al. Topographic and near-surface stratigraphic amplification of the seismic response of a mountain slope revealed by field monitoring and numerical simulations. Engineering Geology, 2020, 271: 105607. doi: 10.1016/j.enggeo.2020.105607
    [31]
    Huang D, Sun P, Jin F, et al. Topographic amplification of ground motions incorporating uncertainty in subsurface soils with extensive geological borehole data. Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, 2021, 141: 106441. doi: 10.1016/j.soildyn.2020.106441
    [32]
    Wang G, Du C Y, Huang D R, et al. Parametric models for 3D topographic amplification of ground motions considering subsurface soils. Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, 2018, 115: 41–54. doi: 10.1016/j.soildyn.2018.07.018
    [33]
    Hailemikael S, Lenti L, Martino S, et al. Ground-motion amplification at the Colle di Roio ridge, central Italy: a combined effect of stratigraphy and topography. Geophysical Journal International, 2016, 206 (1): 1–18. doi: 10.1093/gji/ggw120
    [34]
    Zhang W, Zhang Z, Chen X. Three-dimensional elastic wave numerical modelling in the presence of surface topography by a collocated-grid finite-difference method on curvilinear grids. Geophysical Journal International, 2012, 190 (1): 358–378. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-246X.2012.05472.x
    [35]
    Hixon R. On increasing the accuracy of MacCormack schemes for aeroacoustic applications. In: 3rd AIAA/CEAS Aeroacoustics Conference. Reston, USA: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1997 .
    [36]
    Chen X, Quan Y, Harris J M. Seismogram synthesis for radially layered media using the generalized reflection/transmission coefficients method; theory and applications to acoustic logging. Geophysics, 1996, 61 (4): 1150–1159. doi: 10.1190/1.1444035
    [37]
    Komatitsch D, Tromp J. Introduction to the spectral element method for three-dimensional seismic wave propagation. Geophysical Journal International, 1999, 139 (3): 806–822. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-246x.1999.00967.x
    [38]
    Brocher T M. Empirical relations between elastic wavespeeds and density in the Earth’s crust. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 2005, 95 (6): 2081–2092. doi: 10.1785/0120050077
    [39]
    Wirth E A, Chang S W, Frankel A. 2018 report on incorporating sedimentary basin response into the design of tall buildings in Seattle, Washington. Reston, USA: U.S. Geological Survey, 2018 : Open-File Report 2018-1149.
    [40]
    Withjack M O, Schlische R W, Olsen P E, et al. Rift-basin structure and its influence on sedimentary systems. In: Sedimentation in Continental Rifts. Claremore, USA: Society for Sedimentary Geology, 2002 : 57–81.
    [41]
    Graizer V. Low-velocity zone and topography as a source of site amplification effect on Tarzana hill, California. Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, 2009, 29 (2): 324–332. doi: 10.1016/j.soildyn.2008.03.005
    [42]
    García-Pérez T, Ferreira A M G, Yáñez G, et al. Effects of topography and basins on seismic wave amplification: the Northern Chile coastal cliff and intramountainous basins. Geophysical Journal International, 2021, 227 (2): 1143–1167. doi: 10.1093/gji/ggab259
    [43]
    Lee S-J, Chan Y-C, Komatitsch D, et al. Effects of realistic surface topography on seismic ground motion in the Yangminshan region of Taiwan based upon the spectral-element method and LiDAR DTM. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 2009, 99 (2A): 681–693. doi: 10.1785/0120080264
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